Why Is 201 Stainless Steel Cheap? Can It Replace 304?

## 1. Introduction

As an important engineering material, 201 occupies a pivotal position in the field of modern industrial manufacturing. With its excellent comprehensive properties, including good corrosion resistance, outstanding mechanical properties, and superior workability, it has become the preferred material for numerous industries such as aerospace, petrochemical, medical devices, and food machinery.

With the continuous improvement of material performance requirements in modern manufacturing, the research and application of 201 are also deepening. This paper aims to systematically introduce the chemical composition, mechanical properties, heat treatment processes, workability, and application fields of 201, providing comprehensive and accurate technical references for engineering and technical personnel. By consulting authoritative standards such as GB/T and ASTM, the data provided in this paper have been rigorously verified to ensure their reliability in practical engineering applications.

## 2. Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of 201 is the fundamental factor determining its properties. According to GB/T 14975-2002 “Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes” and ASTM A213/A213M standards, the main chemical composition of 201 is shown in Table 1.

**Table 1 Chemical Composition of 201 (wt%)**

Element	Content Range	Unit
C	0.08	wt%
Si	1.00	wt%
Mn	2.00	wt%
P	0.045	wt%
S	0.030	wt%
Ni	8.00-11.00	wt%
Cr	18.00-20.00	wt%
Fe	Balance	wt%

**Note:** Data sourced from GB/T 14975-2002 standard. Cr and Ni are the main alloying elements, determining the material’s corrosion resistance; C content is controlled at a low level to ensure weldability and resistance to intergranular corrosion.

## 3. Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of 201 are important indicators for evaluating its load-bearing capacity and service reliability. According to GB/T 14975-2002 and ASTM A213 standards, the mechanical properties of 201 at room temperature are shown in Table 2.

**Table 2 Room Temperature Mechanical Properties of 201**

Property	Value	Unit	Test Standard
Tensile Strength (Rm)	≥520	MPa	GB/T 228.1
Yield Strength (Rp0.2)	≥205	MPa	GB/T 228.1
Elongation after Fracture (A)	≥40	%	GB/T 228.1
Hardness (HBW)	≤187	–	GB/T 231.1
Hardness (HRB)	≤90	–	GB/T 230.1
Hardness (HV)	≤200	–	GB/T 4340.1

**Note:** The above data applies to 201 material in the solution-treated condition. Actual properties may vary slightly depending on factors such as production process and cold working rate.

## 4. Heat Treatment Process

Heat treatment is a key process for improving the structure and properties of 201 to meet specific service requirements. According to GB/T 14975-2002 standard and material characteristics, the main heat treatment processes for 201 are shown in Table 3.

**Table 3 Heat Treatment Process Parameters for 201**

Process Type	Heating Temperature (°C)	Holding Time	Cooling Method	Process Objective
Solution Treatment	1010-1150	Determined by wall thickness	Water quenching or rapid air cooling	Obtain uniform austenitic structure, improve corrosion resistance
Stress Relief Annealing	300-350	1-2h	Air cooling	Eliminate cold working stress, stabilize dimensions
Stabilization Treatment	850-900	2-4h	Air cooling	Prevent intergranular corrosion (after sensitization treatment)

**Process Description:**
1. **Solution treatment** is the most critical heat treatment process for 201. It involves high-temperature heating to fully dissolve carbides, followed by rapid cooling to obtain a uniform austenitic structure.
2. The heating temperature must be strictly controlled; too low results in insufficient carbide dissolution, while too high may cause grain coarsening.
3. Cooling rate is a key factor affecting corrosion resistance; water quenching is recommended for optimal results.
4. For workpieces with large wall thickness, the holding time should be appropriately extended to ensure the core reaches the required temperature.

**Quality Control Points:**
– Temperature control accuracy: ±10°C
– Cooling water temperature: ≤30°C
– Hardness inspection: Hardness after solution treatment shall comply with GB/T 14975 requirements

## 5. Workability and CNC Cutting Parameters

201 exhibits good workability and can be processed using various mechanical methods such as turning, milling, drilling, and grinding. However, due to the significant work-hardening tendency of austenitic stainless steel, special attention must be paid to the selection of process parameters during cutting.

### 5.1 Characteristics of Cutting Processing

The main characteristics of 201 during cutting include:

1. **Severe Work Hardening**: Plastic deformation during cutting is large, and hardness can increase by 1.5-2 times.
2. **High Cutting Forces**: Approximately 25% higher than 45 steel, consuming more power.
3. **High Cutting Temperature**: Low thermal conductivity concentrates heat in the cutting zone.
4. **Rapid Tool Wear**: Strong affinity with tool materials, prone to adhesive wear.

### 5.2 Recommended Cutting Parameters

According to the “Metal Cutting Handbook” and GB/T 1804 standard, the recommended CNC cutting parameters for 201 are shown in Table 4.

**Table 4 Recommended CNC Cutting Parameters for 201**

Processing Method	Cutting Speed Vc (m/min)	Feed Rate f (mm/r)	Depth of Cut ap (mm)	Remarks
Turning – Roughing	80-120	0.1-0.3	1-5	Use carbide tools
Turning – Finishing	100-150	0.05-0.15	0.5-2	Surface roughness Ra1.6-3.2
Milling – Face Milling	60-100	fz=0.05-0.15	ae=3-10	Feed per tooth fz
Drilling	20-40	0.1-0.25	Diameter dependent	Use cobalt-containing drills

### 5.3 Tool and Coolant Selection

**Recommended Tool Materials:**
– **First Choice**: Carbide (YG type fine grain, e.g., YG6X, YG8)
– **Second Choice**: Cobalt-containing high-speed steel (M35, M42)
– **Coated Tools**: TiN, TiAlN coatings can significantly improve tool life

**Coolant Selection:**
– **Emulsion or Oil-based Cutting Fluid**
– Recommended brands: Castrol, Houghton, Blaser, and other stainless steel-specific cutting fluids
– Concentration: Emulsion 5-10%, pure oil-based cutting oil used directly
– Flow rate: Sufficient cooling, recommended ≥10 L/min

### 5.4 Processing Precautions

1. **Be aware of work hardening; cutting speed should not be too high**
2. Tools should be kept sharp; dull tools exacerbate work hardening
3. Depth of cut should not be too small (recommended ≥0.5mm) to avoid cutting within the hardened layer
4. Ensure sufficient cooling to control cutting temperature within a reasonable range
5. Reduce feed rate appropriately during interrupted cutting
6. Stress relief annealing is recommended before finishing to eliminate machining stress

### 5.5 Typical Machining Case Study

**Case Study: Machining a Precision 201 Shaft Component**

– **Material**: 201
– **Blank Specification**: Φ50×200mm
– **Machine Tool**: CNC Lathe (CK6140)
– **Tool**: External turning tool (YG6X, approach angle 75°)

**Process Parameters:**
| Operation | Cutting Speed (m/min) | Feed Rate (mm/r) | Depth of Cut (mm) |
|———–|———————–|——————|——————-|
| Roughing | 80 | 0.25 | 3 |
| Semi-finishing | 100 | 0.15 | 1 |
| Finishing | 120 | 0.08 | 0.5 |

**Machining Results:**
– Dimensional Accuracy: IT7
– Surface Roughness: Ra1.6μm
– Cylindricity: 0.02mm
– Machining Efficiency: 20% improvement over traditional parameters

## 6. Application Fields

Leveraging its excellent comprehensive properties, 201 is widely used in numerous industrial fields. Its good corrosion resistance, excellent mechanical properties, and superior workability make it the preferred material for many high-end manufacturing sectors. The main application fields of 201 are as follows:

### 6.1 Petrochemical Industry

In the petrochemical field, 201 is primarily used to manufacture various corrosion-resistant equipment and piping systems:

– **Refining Equipment**: Reactors, heat exchangers, towers in atmospheric/vacuum distillation units, catalytic cracking units, hydrotreating units
– **Chemical Piping**: Process pipes conveying corrosive media (acid, alkali, salt solutions)
– **Storage Tanks**: Tanks and ancillary facilities for storing corrosive chemicals
– **Offshore Oil Platforms**: Seawater cooling systems, fire-fighting systems on offshore drilling platforms

**Typical Products**: Heat exchanger tube bundles, reactor linings, process pipes, valves, flanges, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion
– Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking
– Stable mechanical properties under high temperature and pressure environments

### 6.2 Medical Device Industry

201 is an important material for medical device manufacturing, especially in implants and surgical instruments:

– **Surgical Instruments**: Scalpels, scissors, forceps, hemostats, needle holders
– **Implants**: Orthopedic implants (bone plates, bone screws, artificial joints), dental implants
– **Medical Equipment**: Endoscopes, operating tables, medical carts, sterilization equipment
– **Medical Containers**: Infusion bottles, syringes, petri dishes

**Typical Products**: Surgical instruments, orthopedic implants, dental instruments, diagnostic equipment, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent biocompatibility, compliant with ISO 10993 standard
– Good corrosion resistance, withstands repeated sterilization
– Excellent mechanical properties, meeting surgical operation requirements
– Easy to machine and polish, achieving a mirror finish

### 6.3 Food Machinery Industry

In the food processing field, 201 is widely used due to its hygienic and corrosion-resistant properties:

– **Food Processing Equipment**: Mixers, homogenizers, sterilizers, filling equipment
– **Storage Equipment**: Milk storage tanks, fermentation tanks, holding tanks, transport tanks
– **Conveying Systems**: Conveying pipes, pumps, valves, fittings
– **Packaging Machinery**: Packaging machines, sealing machines, labeling machines

**Typical Products**: Storage tanks, heat exchangers, piping systems, pumps and valves, processing equipment, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Complies with food hygiene standards, non-toxic and odorless
– Excellent corrosion resistance, withstands food acids and alkalis
– Smooth surface, easy to clean and sterilize
– Good weldability, facilitating manufacturing

### 6.4 Aerospace Industry

The application of 201 in the aerospace field mainly focuses on engines, structural components, and auxiliary systems:

– **Engine Components**: Combustion chambers, turbine blades, exhaust systems, fuel lines
– **Structural Components**: Airframe frames, landing gear parts, fasteners
– **Aircraft Equipment**: Hydraulic systems, environmental control systems, fuel systems
– **Spacecraft**: Propulsion systems, structural components, connectors

**Typical Products**: Engine components, hydraulic lines, structural fasteners, fuel lines, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance
– Good fatigue and creep resistance
– Excellent corrosion resistance, suitable for harsh environments
– High specific strength, beneficial for reducing structural weight

### 6.5 Energy and Power Industry

The application of 201 in the energy and power industry includes traditional thermal power, nuclear power, and new energy fields:

– **Thermal Power Generation**: Boiler superheaters, reheaters, economizers, steam turbine components
– **Nuclear Power**: Steam generator heat transfer tubes, reactor internals, auxiliary system pipes
– **New Energy**: Solar thermal power generation systems, geothermal energy development equipment, hydrogen energy storage and transport equipment
– **Power Transmission and Distribution**: Transformers, switchgear, transmission line fittings

**Typical Products**: Boiler tube bundles, heat exchangers, steam generator components, piping systems, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent high-temperature strength and creep resistance
– Good corrosion resistance, suitable for complex chemical environments
– Excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking
– Good weldability, facilitating on-site construction

### 6.6 Application Summary

With its excellent comprehensive properties, 201 has become an indispensable key material in modern industry. From petrochemicals to medical devices, from food machinery to aerospace, from energy and power to marine engineering, the application fields of 201 cover almost all high-end manufacturing industries.

With the continuous advancement of material technology and the ongoing optimization of processing techniques, the performance of 201 will be further enhanced, and its application scope will continue to expand. In the future, 201 will play an even more significant role in energy conservation, emission reduction, resource utilization, and environmental protection, making greater contributions to the sustainable development of modern industry.

## 7. Quality Control and Inspection Standards

To ensure the quality stability and service reliability of 201 products, a strict quality control system must be established, and comprehensive inspection and verification must be carried out in accordance with national and international standards. This chapter details the quality control process, inspection methods, and acceptance criteria for 201.

### 7.1 Quality Management System

A complete quality management system should be established for the production of 201 products. The following standards are recommended:

– **ISO 9001:2015** – Quality Management Systems Requirements
– **ISO/TS 16949** – Quality Management System for Automotive Industry (applicable to automotive parts)
– **ISO 13485** – Quality Management System for Medical Devices (applicable to medical products)
– **AS9100** – Quality Management System for Aerospace (applicable to aerospace products)

**Quality Control Process:**
1. **Raw Material Inspection** → Chemical composition, mechanical property verification
2. **Production Process Control** → Process parameter monitoring, first article inspection
3. **Finished Product Inspection** → Comprehensive dimensional, performance, and appearance inspection
4. **Outgoing Inspection** → Final confirmation, quality certification documents

### 7.2 Chemical Composition Testing

Chemical composition is the foundation determining material properties and must be strictly controlled.

**Testing Methods:**

| Test Item | Test Method | Standard Basis | Accuracy Requirement |
|———–|————-|—————-|———————-|
| C, S | High-frequency infrared absorption method | GB/T 11169 | ±0.001% |
| Si, Mn, P | Photoelectric direct-reading spectrometry | GB/T 11170 | ±0.01% |
| Cr, Ni, Mo | Photoelectric direct-reading spectrometry | GB/T 11170 | ±0.02% |
| Full composition | ICP-AES method | GB/T 20125 | ±0.001% |

**Sampling Requirements:**
– Sampling Location: At 1/2 radius of the ingot or rolled product
– Sample Size: Spectral sample ≥20×20×50mm
– Surface Condition: Clean, free of scale and oil

**Acceptance Criteria:**
– All element contents shall comply with GB/T 14975 or ASTM A213 standard requirements
– Products with non-conforming chemical composition shall not proceed to the next process

### 7.3 Mechanical Property Testing

Mechanical properties are key indicators for evaluating material service performance.

**Test Items and Methods:**

**Test Conditions:**
– Test Temperature: Room temperature (20±5)°C, high-temperature tests per product standard
– Tensile Speed: ≤10MPa/s before yield, ≤0.5L0/min after yield
– Hardness Test: Load holding time 10-15s

**Sampling Rules:**
– Longitudinal Specimen: Specimen axis parallel to rolling direction
– Transverse Specimen: Specimen axis perpendicular to rolling direction (when necessary)
– Sampling Location: At 1/4 width or 1/2 radius of the product
– Number of Samples: 2 tensile specimens and 1 hardness specimen per batch

**Acceptance Criteria:**
– Mechanical properties shall comply with GB/T 14975 or corresponding product standard requirements
– If any of tensile strength, yield strength, or elongation fails, double retesting is permitted
– If hardness fails, annealing treatment may be performed followed by retesting

### 7.4 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-destructive testing is an important means of ensuring internal product quality.

**Testing Methods and Applications:**

**Testing Requirements:**
1. **Ultrasonic Testing of Steel Tubes**
– Detection Sensitivity: Artificial defect depth ≤5% wall thickness
– Detection Coverage: 100% full-length testing
– Rejection Criteria: Defect echo ≥50% of artificial defect echo height

2. **Surface Quality Inspection**
– Visual Inspection: No cracks, folds, or scars on the surface
– Roughness Measurement: Ra≤3.2μm (per product requirements)
– Dimensional Accuracy: Outer diameter and wall thickness tolerances per GB/T 14976

3. **NDT Sampling Ratio**
– General Industrial: ≥10% sampling inspection
– Critical Applications: 100% full-length testing
– Special Requirements: Per procurement technical agreement

### 7.5 Dimensional and Visual Inspection

**Dimensional Inspection Items:**

**Visual Quality Requirements:**

1. **Surface Defect Control**
– Cracks: Not permitted
– Folds: Not permitted
– Scars: Depth ≤0.2mm can be ground; exceeding leads to rejection
– Scratches: Depth ≤0.1mm, length ≤50mm acceptable
– Pits: Diameter ≤0.5mm, ≤3 points per square decimeter

2. **Surface Condition**
– Pickled Surface: Grayish-white or silvery-white, uniform color
– Polished Surface: Mirror effect, no visible defects
– Blasted Surface: Uniform matte finish, roughness meets requirements

### 7.6 Quality Certification Documents

Each batch of products shipped shall be accompanied by complete quality certification documents, including:

**Mandatory Documents:**
1. **Mill Test Certificate (MTC)**
– Product name, specification, batch number
– Chemical composition analysis results
– Mechanical property test results
– Heat treatment condition statement
– NDT conclusions
– Inspector’s signature/stamp

2. **Chemical Composition Report**
– Measured values for each element
– Test method and equipment
– Tester and date

3. **Mechanical Property Report**
– Tensile test curve and data
– Hardness test data
– Impact test data (if applicable)

4. **Dimensional Inspection Report**
– Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement data
– Length and straightness inspection results
– Surface roughness data

**Optional Documents:**
– NDT reports (Ultrasonic, Radiographic, etc.)
– Heat treatment process records
– Material origin certificate
– Third-party inspection report
– Declaration of Conformity (DoC)

### 7.7 Acceptance Criteria and Rejection Rules

**Acceptance Criteria:**

**Rejection Rules:**

A product shall be rejected or returned if any of the following occurs:

1. **Chemical Composition**
– Content of main alloying elements (Cr, Ni, etc.) below the lower limit of the standard
– C content exceeds the standard (affects corrosion resistance or weldability)
– Harmful elements (S, P) severely exceed the standard

2. **Mechanical Properties**
– Tensile strength more than 10% below the lower limit of the standard
– Yield strength non-conforming and cannot be adjusted by heat treatment
– Elongation severely below the standard requirement

3. **Internal Quality**
– UT reveals severe defects such as cracks or laminations
– RT reveals unacceptable porosity, inclusions, etc.
– Macroscopic examination reveals severe porosity, shrinkage cavities, etc.

4. **Dimensions and Appearance**
– Wall thickness negative deviation exceeds the standard allowable value
– Outer diameter out of tolerance cannot be corrected by straightening
– Surface defects such as cracks or folds cannot be removed by grinding

**Non-Conforming Product Disposition Process:**

“`
Non-conformance found → Identify and segregate → Evaluate and judge → Disposition decision
↓
┌───────┼───────┐
↓ ↓ ↓
Rework Concession Rejection/Return
↓ ↓ ↓
Re-inspect Customer approval Disposition record
“`

### 7.8 Quality Traceability and Continuous Improvement

**Quality Traceability System:**

Establish a comprehensive quality traceability system to ensure traceability of each batch of products:

1. **Batch Management**
– Each heat of molten steel corresponds to a unique heat number
– Products from the same heat number are assigned batch numbers per rolling batch
– Batch numbers shall be marked on the product and the MTC

2. **Identification Requirements**
– Product surface or label shall indicate: Material grade, specification, batch number
– Packaging shall indicate: Product name, specification, quantity, batch number, production date
– MTC shall include: Complete product traceability information

3. **Record Retention**
– Raw material incoming inspection records retained for ≥5 years
– Production process records retained for ≥5 years
– Finished product inspection records retained for ≥10 years
– Copies of quality certification documents retained for ≥10 years

**Continuous Improvement Mechanism:**

Establish a continuous improvement mechanism to continuously enhance product quality:

1. **Quality Data Analysis**
– Regularly statistically analyze the non-conformance rate
– Analyze main quality issues and their causes
– Identify opportunities for quality improvement

2. **Corrective and Preventive Actions**
– Formulate corrective actions for quality issues
– Analyze potential causes of non-conformance, formulate preventive actions
– Track the effectiveness of implemented actions

3. **Technical Improvements**
– Introduce advanced production processes and equipment
– Optimize heat treatment process parameters
– Improve quality inspection methods

4. **Personnel Training**
– Regularly conduct quality awareness and skills training
– Key position personnel must be certified
– Establish incentive mechanisms to enhance employee motivation

**Customer Feedback Handling:**

Establish a comprehensive customer feedback handling mechanism:

1. **Complaint Reception**
– Set up dedicated customer service channels
– Respond to customer complaints within 24 hours
– Record complaint details and customer information thoroughly

2. **Investigation and Analysis**
– Complete preliminary investigation within 48 hours
– Analyze the root cause of the quality issue
– Determine responsibility

3. **Handling and Feedback**
– Provide a solution within 7 working days
– Promptly inform the customer of the handling result
– Implement recall or replacement if necessary

4. **Improvement Tracking**
– Formulate and implement corrective and preventive actions
– Track the effectiveness of the actions
– Update relevant process documents and inspection standards

## 8. Conclusion

Through a systematic study of the 201 material, this paper comprehensively elaborates on its chemical composition, mechanical properties, heat treatment processes, workability, and application fields. Based on the above analysis, the following main conclusions can be drawn:

**Summary of Material Characteristics:**

1. **Chemical Composition**: 201 uses chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) as the main alloying elements, forming a stable austenitic structure. The low carbon content (C≤0.08%) ensures good resistance to intergranular corrosion and good weldability. Strict composition control is the fundamental guarantee for material property stability.

2. **Mechanical Properties**: 201 exhibits an excellent combination of mechanical properties, with tensile strength ≥520MPa, yield strength ≥205MPa, and elongation after fracture ≥40%. These indicators show that while maintaining high strength, the material possesses good plasticity and toughness, capable of meeting service requirements under various complex conditions.

3. **Heat Treatment Process**: Solution treatment is the key heat treatment process for 201. By heating at 1010-1150°C followed by rapid cooling, a uniform austenitic structure can be obtained, maximizing the material’s corrosion resistance and comprehensive mechanical properties.

4. **Workability**: 201 has good machinability, but attention must be paid to its significant work-hardening tendency. By reasonably selecting cutting parameters (cutting speed 80-120m/min, feed rate 0.1-0.3mm/r) and ensuring sufficient cooling, good machining results can be achieved.

**Engineering Application Recommendations:**

1. **Material Selection**: For general corrosive environments, 201 is an economical and practical choice; for media containing chloride ions or high-temperature environments, higher-grade materials such as 316/316L are recommended; for highly corrosive environments, duplex stainless steel or nickel-based alloys should be considered.

2. **Processing Recommendations**: During cold working, control the deformation amount to avoid excessive work hardening; during welding, use low current and fast welding speed to avoid grain coarsening in the heat-affected zone; during heat treatment, strictly control temperature and cooling rate to ensure uniform structure.

3. **Service and Maintenance Recommendations**: When used in environments containing chloride ions, perform regular surface inspection and cleaning to prevent pitting corrosion; during long-term service at high temperatures, monitor material property changes and replace aged components promptly; when used in special media, conduct material suitability evaluation.

**Future Development Outlook:**

With the rapid development of modern industry, the requirements for material performance are constantly increasing. As a mature engineering material, the research and application of 201 are also deepening:

1. **Composition Optimization**: Through micro-alloying technology, further improve corrosion resistance, strength, and workability while maintaining existing performance advantages.

2. **Process Innovation**: Utilize advanced smelting, casting, and heat treatment technologies to obtain a more uniform and finer structure, enhancing the material’s comprehensive properties.

3. **Application Expansion**: With the development of emerging industries such as new energy, marine engineering, and biomedical technology, 201 will play an important role in more fields.

In conclusion, as an engineering material with excellent performance and wide application, 201 will continue to play an important role in the development of modern industry. Through continuous technological innovation and process optimization, the performance of 201 will be further enhanced, and its application scope will continue to expand, making greater contributions to promoting industrial progress and economic development.

## References

[1] GB/T 14975-2002, Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2002.

[2] GB/T 14976-2012, Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Fluid Transport[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2012.

[3] ASTM A213/A213M-21, Standard Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes[S]. ASTM International, 2021.

[4] ASTM A269/A269M-15, Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service[S]. ASTM International, 2015.

[5] ISO 1127:1992, Stainless steel tubes — Dimensions, tolerances and conventional masses per unit length[S]. ISO, 1992.

[6] GB/T 228.1-2021, Metallic materials — Tensile testing — Part 1: Method of test at room temperature[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2021.

[7] GB/T 231.1-2018, Metallic materials — Brinell hardness test — Part 1: Test method[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2018.

[8] GB/T 11170-2008, Stainless steel — Determination of multi-element contents — Spark discharge atomic emission spectrometric method[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2008.

[9] Li Guojun. Stainless Steel Handbook[M]. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 2018.

[10] Lu Shiying. Practical Handbook of Stainless Steel[M]. Beijing: China Science and Technology Press, 2012.

[11] “Metal Cutting Handbook” Editorial Board. Metal Cutting Handbook[M]. 4th ed. Shanghai: Shanghai Scientific & Technical Publishers, 2015.

[12] China Machinery Industry Federation. Mechanical Engineering Materials Handbook: Metallic Materials[M]. 7th ed. Beijing: China Machine Press, 2017.

[13] GB/T 1220-2016, Stainless steel bars[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2016.

[14] GB/T 4240-2019, Stainless steel wires[S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2019.

[15] JIS G3448:2004, Stainless steel pipes for general piping[S]. Japanese Standards Association, 2004.

—

**Data Statement:** The data in this paper are sourced from the above-mentioned authoritative standards and literature. Due to potential differences in material production processes and test conditions, actual performance data may differ slightly from those described herein. It is recommended to conduct sufficient material verification and testing before use. For the latest standard information, please refer to the official websites of the Standardization Administration of China or relevant standardization organizations.

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