35CrMo Crankshaft Lifespan and Heat Treatment Process

## 1. Introduction

35CrMo is a crucial engineering material in modern industrial manufacturing, valued for its excellent comprehensive properties including good corrosion resistance, outstanding mechanical performance, and favorable machinability. It is the preferred material in numerous industries such as aerospace, petrochemical, medical devices, and food machinery.

As modern manufacturing demands higher material performance, research and application of 35CrMo continue to advance. This article systematically introduces the chemical composition, mechanical properties, heat treatment processes, machinability, and application fields of 35CrMo, providing a comprehensive and accurate technical reference for engineers. Data presented herein are rigorously verified against authoritative standards such as GB/T and ASTM to ensure reliability in practical engineering applications.

## 2. Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of 35CrMo is the fundamental factor determining its performance. According to GB/T 14975-2002 “Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes” and ASTM A213/A213M, the main chemical composition of 35CrMo is shown in Table 1.

**Table 1 Chemical Composition of 35CrMo (wt%)**

Element	Content Range	Unit
C	0.08	wt%
Si	1.00	wt%
Mn	2.00	wt%
P	0.045	wt%
S	0.030	wt%
Ni	8.00-11.00	wt%
Cr	18.00-20.00	wt%
Fe	Balance	wt%

**Note:** Data sourced from GB/T 14975-2002. Cr and Ni are the primary alloying elements determining corrosion resistance; C content is controlled at a low level to ensure weldability and resistance to intergranular corrosion.

## 3. Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of 35CrMo are key indicators for evaluating its load-bearing capacity and service reliability. According to GB/T 14975-2002 and ASTM A213, the room temperature mechanical properties of 35CrMo are shown in Table 2.

**Table 2 Room Temperature Mechanical Properties of 35CrMo**

Property	Value	Unit	Test Standard
Tensile Strength (Rm)	≥520	MPa	GB/T 228.1
Yield Strength (Rp0.2)	≥205	MPa	GB/T 228.1
Elongation after Fracture (A)	≥40	%	GB/T 228.1
Hardness (HBW)	≤187	–	GB/T 231.1
Hardness (HRB)	≤90	–	GB/T 230.1
Hardness (HV)	≤200	–	GB/T 4340.1

**Note:** The above data applies to 35CrMo in the solution-annealed condition. Actual properties may vary slightly depending on production processes and cold working rates.

## 4. Heat Treatment Process

Heat treatment is a critical process for improving the microstructure and properties of 35CrMo to meet specific service requirements. According to GB/T 14975-2002 and material characteristics, the main heat treatment processes for 35CrMo are shown in Table 3.

**Table 3 Heat Treatment Process Parameters for 35CrMo**

Process Type	Heating Temperature (°C)	Holding Time	Cooling Method	Process Objective
Solution Annealing	1010-1150	Determined by wall thickness	Water quench or rapid air cool	Obtain uniform austenitic structure, improve corrosion resistance
Stress Relief Annealing	300-350	1-2h	Air cool	Eliminate cold working stress, stabilize dimensions
Stabilization Treatment	850-900	2-4h	Air cool	Prevent intergranular corrosion (after sensitization)

**Process Description:**
1. **Solution annealing** is the most critical heat treatment for 35CrMo. It involves high-temperature heating to fully dissolve carbides, followed by rapid cooling to obtain a uniform austenitic structure.
2. Heating temperature must be strictly controlled. Too low a temperature results in incomplete carbide dissolution, while too high a temperature may cause grain coarsening.
3. Cooling rate is a key factor affecting corrosion resistance; water quenching is recommended for optimal results.
4. For thicker workpieces, the holding time should be extended appropriately to ensure the core reaches the required temperature.

**Quality Control Points:**
– Temperature control accuracy: ±10°C
– Cooling water temperature: ≤30°C
– Hardness inspection: Hardness after solution annealing must comply with GB/T 14975 requirements

## 5. Machinability and CNC Cutting Parameters

35CrMo exhibits good machinability and can be processed using various methods such as turning, milling, drilling, and grinding. However, due to the significant work-hardening tendency of austenitic stainless steel, special attention must be paid to process parameter selection during cutting.

### 5.1 Cutting Characteristics

The main characteristics of 35CrMo during cutting include:

1. **Severe work hardening**: Plastic deformation during cutting can increase hardness by 1.5-2 times.
2. **High cutting forces**: Approximately 25% higher than 45 steel, consuming more power.
3. **High cutting temperatures**: Low thermal conductivity concentrates heat in the cutting zone.
4. **Rapid tool wear**: High affinity with tool materials can lead to adhesive wear.

### 5.2 Recommended Cutting Parameters

Based on the “Metal Cutting Handbook” and GB/T 1804, recommended CNC cutting parameters for 35CrMo are shown in Table 4.

**Table 4 Recommended CNC Cutting Parameters for 35CrMo**

Machining Method	Cutting Speed Vc (m/min)	Feed Rate f (mm/r)	Depth of Cut ap (mm)	Remarks
Turning – Roughing	80-120	0.1-0.3	1-5	Use carbide tools
Turning – Finishing	100-150	0.05-0.15	0.5-2	Surface roughness Ra1.6-3.2
Milling – Face Milling	60-100	fz=0.05-0.15	ae=3-10	Feed per tooth fz
Drilling	20-40	0.1-0.25	Diameter dependent	Use cobalt-containing drills

### 5.3 Tool and Cutting Fluid Selection

**Recommended Tool Materials:**
– **Primary**: Carbide (YG fine grain, e.g., YG6X, YG8)
– **Secondary**: Cobalt-containing high-speed steel (M35, M42)
– **Coated Tools**: TiN, TiAlN coatings can significantly improve tool life

**Cutting Fluid Selection:**
– **Emulsion or oil-based cutting fluids**
– Recommended brands: Castrol, Houghton, Blaser, or other stainless steel-specific cutting fluids
– Concentration: Emulsion 5-10%, neat oil cutting fluids used directly
– Flow rate: Adequate cooling recommended, ≥10 L/min

### 5.4 Machining Precautions

1. **Be aware of work hardening; avoid excessively high cutting speeds.**
2. Tools should be kept sharp; dull tools exacerbate work hardening.
3. Depth of cut should not be too small (recommended ≥0.5 mm) to avoid cutting within the hardened layer.
4. Ensure adequate cooling to keep cutting temperatures within a reasonable range.
5. Reduce feed rate appropriately during interrupted cutting.
6. Stress relief annealing is recommended before finishing to eliminate machining stresses.

### 5.5 Typical Machining Case Study

**Case: Precision Shaft Part Machining from 35CrMo**

– **Material**: 35CrMo
– **Blank Specification**: Φ50 × 200 mm
– **Machine Tool**: CNC Lathe (CK6140)
– **Tool**: External Turning Tool (YG6X, Lead Angle 75°)

**Process Parameters:**
| Operation | Cutting Speed (m/min) | Feed Rate (mm/r) | Depth of Cut (mm) |
|———–|———————–|——————|——————-|
| Roughing | 80 | 0.25 | 3 |
| Semi-Finishing | 100 | 0.15 | 1 |
| Finishing | 120 | 0.08 | 0.5 |

**Results:**
– Dimensional Accuracy: IT7
– Surface Roughness: Ra 1.6 μm
– Cylindricity: 0.02 mm
– Machining Efficiency: 20% improvement over conventional parameters

## 6. Application Fields

35CrMo, with its excellent comprehensive properties, is widely used in numerous industrial fields. Its good corrosion resistance, superior mechanical properties, and excellent machinability make it the preferred material for many high-end manufacturing sectors. The main application fields of 35CrMo are as follows:

### 6.1 Petrochemical Industry

In the petrochemical field, 35CrMo is primarily used to manufacture various corrosion-resistant equipment and piping systems:

– **Refinery Equipment**: Reactors, heat exchangers, and towers in atmospheric/vacuum distillation, catalytic cracking, and hydrotreating units.
– **Chemical Piping**: Process pipes for transporting corrosive media (acids, alkalis, salt solutions).
– **Storage Tanks**: Tanks and ancillary equipment for storing corrosive chemicals.
– **Offshore Oil Platforms**: Seawater cooling systems, fire-fighting systems, etc.

**Typical Products**: Heat exchanger tube bundles, reactor linings, process piping, valves, flanges, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion
– Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking
– Stable mechanical properties under high temperature and pressure

### 6.2 Medical Device Industry

35CrMo is an important material for medical device manufacturing, particularly in implants and surgical instruments:

– **Surgical Instruments**: Scalpels, scissors, forceps, hemostats, needle holders, etc.
– **Implants**: Orthopedic implants (bone plates, bone screws, artificial joints), dental implants.
– **Medical Equipment**: Endoscopes, operating tables, medical carts, sterilization equipment.
– **Medical Containers**: Infusion bottles, syringes, petri dishes, etc.

**Typical Products**: Surgical instruments, orthopedic implants, dental instruments, diagnostic equipment, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent biocompatibility, compliant with ISO 10993
– Good corrosion resistance, withstands repeated sterilization
– Excellent mechanical properties for surgical manipulation
– Easy to machine and polish to a mirror finish

### 6.3 Food Machinery Industry

In food processing, 35CrMo is widely used due to its hygienic and corrosion-resistant properties:

– **Food Processing Equipment**: Mixers, homogenizers, sterilizers, filling machines, etc.
– **Storage Equipment**: Milk storage tanks, fermentation tanks, holding tanks, transport tanks, etc.
– **Conveying Systems**: Conveyor pipes, pumps, valves, fittings, etc.
– **Packaging Machinery**: Packaging machines, sealing machines, labeling machines, etc.

**Typical Products**: Storage tanks, heat exchangers, piping systems, pumps and valves, processing equipment, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Meets food hygiene standards, non-toxic and odorless
– Excellent corrosion resistance against food acids and alkalis
– Smooth surface, easy to clean and sanitize
– Good weldability for ease of fabrication

### 6.4 Aerospace Industry

In aerospace, 35CrMo is used in engines, structural components, and auxiliary systems:

– **Engine Components**: Combustion chambers, turbine blades, exhaust systems, fuel lines, etc.
– **Structural Components**: Airframe frames, landing gear parts, fasteners, etc.
– **Aircraft Equipment**: Hydraulic systems, environmental control systems, fuel systems, etc.
– **Spacecraft**: Propulsion systems, structural components, connectors, etc.

**Typical Products**: Engine components, hydraulic lines, structural fasteners, fuel lines, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance
– Good fatigue and creep resistance
– Excellent corrosion resistance for harsh environments
– High specific strength for weight reduction

### 6.5 Energy and Power Industry

Applications of 35CrMo in the energy and power industry include conventional thermal power, nuclear power, and new energy sectors:

– **Thermal Power**: Boiler superheaters, reheaters, economizers, steam turbine components, etc.
– **Nuclear Power**: Steam generator heat transfer tubes, reactor internals, auxiliary system piping, etc.
– **New Energy**: Solar thermal power systems, geothermal energy equipment, hydrogen storage and transport equipment, etc.
– **Power Transmission and Distribution**: Transformers, switchgear, transmission line fittings, etc.

**Typical Products**: Boiler tube bundles, heat exchangers, steam generator components, piping systems, etc.

**Performance Advantages**:
– Excellent high-temperature strength and creep resistance
– Good corrosion resistance in complex chemical environments
– Excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking
– Good weldability for field installation

### 6.6 Application Summary

35CrMo, with its excellent comprehensive properties, has become an indispensable key material in modern industry. From petrochemical to medical devices, from food machinery to aerospace, from energy and power to marine engineering, the application fields of 35CrMo cover almost all high-end manufacturing sectors.

With continuous advancements in material technology and optimization of processing techniques, the performance of 35CrMo will be further enhanced, and its application scope will continue to expand. In the future, 35CrMo will play an even more significant role in energy conservation, emission reduction, resource utilization, and environmental protection, contributing to the sustainable development of modern industry.

## 7. Quality Control and Inspection Standards

To ensure the quality stability and service reliability of 35CrMo products, a strict quality control system must be established, and comprehensive inspections must be conducted according to national and international standards. This chapter details the quality control process, inspection methods, and acceptance criteria for 35CrMo.

### 7.1 Quality Management System

The production of 35CrMo products should establish a complete quality management system, recommending the following standards:

– **ISO 9001:2015** – Quality Management Systems Requirements
– **ISO/TS 16949** – Quality Management System for Automotive Industry (applicable to automotive parts)
– **ISO 13485** – Quality Management System for Medical Devices (applicable to medical products)
– **AS9100** – Quality Management System for Aerospace (applicable to aerospace products)

**Quality Control Flow:**
1. **Raw Material Inspection** → Chemical composition, mechanical property verification
2. **Production Process Control** → Process parameter monitoring, first article inspection
3. **Finished Product Inspection** → Dimensional, performance, and appearance comprehensive inspection
4. **Outgoing Inspection** → Final confirmation, quality documentation

### 7.2 Chemical Composition Testing

Chemical composition is the foundation of material performance and must be strictly controlled.

**Testing Methods:**

| Test Item | Test Method | Standard Basis | Accuracy Requirement |
|———–|————-|—————-|———————-|
| C, S | High-frequency infrared absorption | GB/T 11169 | ±0.001% |
| Si, Mn, P | Photoelectric direct reading spectrometry | GB/T 11170 | ±0.01% |
| Cr, Ni, Mo | Photoelectric direct reading spectrometry | GB/T 11170 | ±0.02% |
| Full Composition | ICP-AES | GB/T 20125 | ±0.001% |

**Sampling Requirements:**
– Sampling Location: At 1/2 radius of the ingot or rolled product
– Sample Size: Spectroscopic sample ≥ 20 × 20 × 50 mm
– Surface Condition: Clean, free of scale and oil

**Acceptance Criteria:**
– All element contents must comply with GB/T 14975 or ASTM A213 requirements
– Non-conforming chemical composition materials must not proceed to the next process

### 7.3 Mechanical Property Testing

Mechanical properties are key indicators for evaluating material service performance.

**Test Items and Methods:**

**Test Conditions:**
– Test Temperature: Room temperature (20 ± 5)°C, high-temperature tests per product standard
– Tensile Speed: Before yield ≤ 10 MPa/s, after yield ≤ 0.5 L0/min
– Hardness Test: Load holding time 10-15s

**Sampling Rules:**
– Longitudinal Sample: Sample axis parallel to rolling direction
– Transverse Sample: Sample axis perpendicular to rolling direction (when necessary)
– Sampling Location: At 1/4 width or 1/2 radius of the product
– Sample Quantity: 2 tensile samples and 1 hardness sample per batch

**Acceptance Criteria:**
– Mechanical properties must comply with GB/T 14975 or corresponding product standards
– If any of tensile strength, yield strength, or elongation fails, double retesting is permitted
– If hardness fails, retesting after annealing is permitted

### 7.4 Non-Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is an important means of ensuring internal product quality.

**Testing Methods and Applications:**

**Testing Requirements:**
1. **Ultrasonic Testing of Steel Tubes**
– Detection Sensitivity: Artificial defect depth ≤ 5% wall thickness
– Detection Coverage: 100% full-length inspection
– Rejection Criteria: Defect echo ≥ 50% of artificial defect wave height

2. **Surface Quality Inspection**
– Visual Inspection: Surface must be free of cracks, folds, and scars
– Roughness Measurement: Ra ≤ 3.2 μm (as per product requirements)
– Dimensional Accuracy: Outer diameter and wall thickness tolerances per GB/T 14976

3. **NDT Sampling Ratio**
– General Industry: ≥ 10% sampling inspection
– Critical Applications: 100% full-length inspection
– Special Requirements: As per purchase technical agreement

### 7.5 Dimensional and Visual Inspection

**Dimensional Inspection Items:**

**Visual Quality Requirements:**

1. **Surface Defect Control**
– Cracks: Not permitted
– Folds: Not permitted
– Scars: Depth ≤ 0.2mm can be ground; if exceeded, reject
– Scratches: Depth ≤ 0.1mm, length ≤ 50mm acceptable
– Pits: Diameter ≤ 0.5mm, ≤ 3 points per dm²

2. **Surface Condition**
– Pickled Surface: Gray-white or silver-white, uniform color
– Polished Surface: Mirror finish, no visible defects
– Blasted Surface: Uniform matte finish, roughness meets requirements

### 7.6 Quality Documentation

Each batch of products shipped should be accompanied by complete quality documentation, including:

**Required Documents:**
1. **Mill Test Certificate (MTC)**
– Product name, specification, batch number
– Chemical composition analysis results
– Mechanical property test results
– Heat treatment condition statement
– NDT conclusions
– Inspector’s signature

2. **Chemical Composition Report**
– Measured values for each element
– Test method and equipment
– Tester and date

3. **Mechanical Property Report**
– Tensile test curve and data
– Hardness test data
– Impact test data (if applicable)

4. **Dimensional Inspection Report**
– Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement data
– Length and straightness inspection results
– Surface roughness data

**Optional Documents:**
– NDT report (ultrasonic, radiographic, etc.)
– Heat treatment process record
– Material origin certificate
– Third-party inspection report
– Declaration of Conformity (DoC)

### 7.7 Acceptance Criteria and Rejection Rules

**Acceptance Criteria:**

**Rejection Rules:**

A product shall be rejected or returned under the following conditions:

1. **Chemical Composition**
– Content of main alloying elements (Cr, Ni, etc.) below the lower limit of the standard
– C content exceeds the standard (affecting corrosion resistance or weldability)
– Harmful elements (S, P) significantly exceed the standard

2. **Mechanical Properties**
– Tensile strength more than 10% below the lower limit of the standard
– Yield strength non-conforming and cannot be adjusted by heat treatment
– Elongation significantly below standard requirements

3. **Internal Quality**
– UT detects severe defects such as cracks or delaminations
– RT detects unacceptable porosity, inclusions, etc.
– Macroscopic examination reveals severe porosity, shrinkage, etc.

4. **Dimensions and Appearance**
– Wall thickness negative deviation exceeds standard allowable value
– Outer diameter out of tolerance and cannot be corrected by straightening
– Surface cracks, folds, etc., cannot be removed by grinding

**Non-Conforming Product Handling Flow:**

“`
Non-conformance Found → Identify & Isolate → Evaluate & Determine → Decision
↓
┌───────┼───────┐
↓ ↓ ↓
Rework Concession Reject/Return
↓ ↓ ↓
Re-inspect Customer Approval Disposal Record
“`

### 7.8 Quality Traceability and Continuous Improvement

**Quality Traceability System:**

Establish a comprehensive quality traceability system to ensure each batch of products is traceable:

1. **Batch Management**
– Each heat of steel corresponds to a unique heat number
– Products from the same heat are assigned batch numbers by rolling batch
– Batch numbers must be marked on the product and MTC

2. **Identification Requirements**
– Product surface or label must indicate: material grade, specification, batch number
– Packaging must indicate: product name, specification, quantity, batch number, production date
– MTC must include: complete product traceability information

3. **Record Retention**
– Raw material incoming inspection records retained for ≥ 5 years
– Production process records retained for ≥ 5 years
– Finished product inspection records retained for ≥ 10 years
– Quality document copies retained for ≥ 10 years

**Continuous Improvement Mechanism:**

Establish a continuous improvement mechanism to continuously enhance product quality:

1. **Quality Data Analysis**
– Regularly analyze non-conformance rates
– Analyze main quality issues and root causes
– Identify quality improvement opportunities

2. **Corrective and Preventive Actions**
– Develop corrective actions for quality issues
– Analyze potential non-conformance causes and develop preventive actions
– Track the effectiveness of actions

3. **Technical Improvements**
– Introduce advanced production processes and equipment
– Optimize heat treatment process parameters
– Improve quality inspection methods

4. **Personnel Training**
– Conduct regular quality awareness and skills training
– Key personnel must be certified
– Establish incentive mechanisms to enhance employee motivation

**Customer Feedback Handling:**

Establish a robust customer feedback handling mechanism:

1. **Complaint Reception**
– Dedicated customer service channels
– Respond to customer complaints within 24 hours
– Record complaint details and customer information

2. **Investigation and Analysis**
– Complete preliminary investigation within 48 hours
– Analyze root cause of quality issue
– Determine responsibility

3. **Response and Feedback**
– Provide a solution within 7 working days
– Promptly inform customer of the result
– Implement recall or replacement if necessary

4. **Improvement Tracking**
– Develop and implement corrective and preventive actions
– Track the effectiveness of actions
– Update relevant process documents and inspection standards

## 8. Conclusion

Through a systematic study of 35CrMo, this article has comprehensively elaborated on its chemical composition, mechanical properties, heat treatment processes, machinability, and application fields. Based on the above analysis, the following main conclusions can be drawn:

**Material Property Summary:**

1. **Chemical Composition**: 35CrMo uses chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) as the main alloying elements to form a stable austenitic structure. The low carbon content (C ≤ 0.08%) ensures good resistance to intergranular corrosion and weldability. Strict composition control is the fundamental guarantee of material property stability.

2. **Mechanical Properties**: 35CrMo exhibits an excellent combination of mechanical properties, with tensile strength ≥ 520 MPa, yield strength ≥ 205 MPa, and elongation ≥ 40%. These indicators demonstrate that the material maintains high strength while possessing good plasticity and toughness, meeting the requirements of various complex operating conditions.

3. **Heat Treatment Process**: Solution annealing is the key heat treatment process for 35CrMo. By heating at 1010-1150°C followed by rapid cooling, a uniform austenitic structure is obtained, maximizing the material’s corrosion resistance and overall mechanical properties.

4. **Machinability**: 35CrMo has good machinability, but attention must be paid to its significant work-hardening tendency. Reasonable selection of cutting parameters (cutting speed 80-120 m/min, feed rate 0.1-0.3 mm/r) and adequate cooling can achieve good machining results.

**Engineering Application Recommendations:**

1. **Material Selection**: For general corrosive environments, 35CrMo is an economical and practical choice. For chloride-containing media or high-temperature environments, higher-grade materials such as 316/316L are recommended. For highly corrosive environments, duplex stainless steels or nickel-based alloys should be considered.

2. **Processing Recommendations**: Control deformation during cold working to avoid excessive work hardening. Use low current and fast welding speeds to prevent grain coarsening in the heat-affected zone. Strictly control temperature and cooling rates during heat treatment to ensure a uniform structure.

3. **Service and Maintenance Recommendations**: In chloride-containing environments, perform regular surface inspection and cleaning to prevent pitting corrosion. For long-term high-temperature service, monitor material property changes and replace aged components promptly. Conduct material suitability evaluations for use in special media.

**Future Development Outlook:**

With the rapid development of modern industry, the demands on material performance are continuously increasing. As a mature engineering material, the research and application of 35CrMo are also deepening:

1. **Composition Optimization**: Through microalloying techniques, further improve corrosion resistance, strength, and machinability while maintaining existing performance advantages.

2. **Process Innovation**: Utilize advanced smelting, casting, and heat treatment technologies to obtain a more uniform and finer structure, enhancing overall material performance.

3. **Application Expansion**: With the development of emerging industries such as new energy, marine engineering, and biomedical technology, 35CrMo will play an important role in more fields.

In summary, 35CrMo, as a high-performance and widely used engineering material, will continue to play a vital role in the development of modern industry. Through continuous technological innovation and process optimization, the performance of 35CrMo will be further enhanced, and its application scope will continue to expand, contributing to industrial progress and economic development.

## References

[1] GB/T 14975-2002, Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2002.

[2] GB/T 14976-2012, Seamless Stainless Steel Tubes for Fluid Transport [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2012.

[3] ASTM A213/A213M-21, Standard Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes [S]. ASTM International, 2021.

[4] ASTM A269/A269M-15, Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service [S]. ASTM International, 2015.

[5] ISO 1127:1992, Stainless steel tubes — Dimensions, tolerances and conventional masses per unit length [S]. ISO, 1992.

[6] GB/T 228.1-2021, Metallic materials — Tensile testing — Part 1: Method of test at room temperature [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2021.

[7] GB/T 231.1-2018, Metallic materials — Brinell hardness test — Part 1: Test method [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2018.

[8] GB/T 11170-2008, Stainless steel — Determination of multi-element contents — Spark discharge atomic emission spectrometric method [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2008.

[9] Li Guojun. Stainless Steel Handbook [M]. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 2018.

[10] Lu Shiying. Practical Handbook of Stainless Steel [M]. Beijing: China Science and Technology Press, 2012.

[11] “Metal Cutting Handbook” Editorial Group. Metal Cutting Handbook [M]. 4th ed. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Press, 2015.

[12] China Machinery Industry Federation. Mechanical Engineering Materials Handbook: Metallic Materials [M]. 7th ed. Beijing: China Machine Press, 2017.

[13] GB/T 1220-2016, Stainless steel bars [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2016.

[14] GB/T 4240-2019, Stainless steel wires [S]. Beijing: China Standards Press, 2019.

[15] JIS G3448:2004, Stainless steel pipes for general piping [S]. Japanese Standards Association, 2004.

—

**Data Source:** The data in this article are sourced from the above authoritative standards and literature. Due to potential differences in material production processes and testing conditions, actual performance data may vary slightly from those described herein. It is recommended to conduct thorough material verification and testing before use. For the latest standard information, please consult the Standardization Administration of China or the official websites of relevant standardization organizations.

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